Optimization of expression of parvoviral rep and cap proteins in insect cells

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to the improved production of recombinant parvoviral virions in insect cells. In particular, the invention relates to an improved process for the production of recombinant parvoviral virions in insect cells, wherein the full/empty parvoviral virion ratio is increased. The invention also relates to the production of parvoviral vectors that may be used in gene therapy and to improvements in expression of the viral Rep proteins that increase the productivity of parvoviral vectors.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to the production of parvovirus vectors, especially to the production of recombinant adeno-associated viruses (rAAV) in insect cells, baculoviral expression vectors comprising a construct of the invention and a cell comprising such a baculoviral expression vector.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The baculovirus expression system is well known for its use as eukaryotic cloning and expression vector (King, L. A., and R. D. Possee, 1992, “The baculovirus expression system”, Chapman and Hall, United Kingdom; O'Reilly, D. R., et al., 1992. Baculovirus Expression Vectors: A Laboratory Manual. New York: W. H. Freeman.). Advantages of the baculovirus expression system are among others that the expressed proteins are almost always soluble, correctly folded and biologically active. Further advantages include high protein expression levels, faster production, suitability for expression of large proteins and suitability for large-scale production. However, in large-scale or continuous production of heterologous proteins using the baculovirus expression system in insect cell bioreactors, the instability of production levels, also known as the passage effect, is a major obstacle. This effect is at least in part due to recombination between repeated homologous sequences in the baculoviral DNA.

The baculovirus expression system has also successfully been used for the production of recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors (Urabe et al., 2002, Hum. Gene Ther. 13: 1935-1943; U.S. Pat. No. 6,723,551 and US 20040197895). AAV may be considered as one of the most promising viral vectors for human gene therapy. AAV has the ability to efficiently infect dividing as well as non-dividing human cells, the AAV viral genome integrates into a single chromosomal site in the host cell's genome, and most importantly, even though AAV is present in many humans it has never been associated with any disease. In view of these advantages, recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) is being evaluated in gene therapy clinical trials for hemophilia B, malignant melanoma, cystic fibrosis, hyperlipoproteinemia type I and other diseases.

To overcome problems with mammalian productions systems for AAV Urabe et al. (2002, supra) developed an AAV production system in insect cells. For production of AAV in insect cells some modifications were necessary in order to achieve the correct stoichiometry of the three AAV capsid proteins (VP1, VP2 and VP3), which relies on a combination of alternate usage of two splice acceptor sites and the suboptimal utilization of an ACG initiation codon for VP2 that is not accurately reproduced by insect cells. To mimic the correct stoichiometry of the capsid proteins in insect cells Urabe et al. (2002, supra) use a construct that is transcribed into a single polycistronic messenger that is able to express all three VP proteins without requiring splicing and wherein the most upstream initiator codon is replaced by the suboptimal initiator codon ACG. WO2007/046703 discloses further improvement of the infectivity of baculovirus-produced rAAV vectors based production by optimisation of the stoichiometry of AAV capsid proteins as produced in insect cells.

For expression of the AAV Rep proteins in the AAV insect cell expression system as initially developed by Urabe et al. (2002, supra), a recombinant baculovirus construct is used that harbours two independent Rep expression units (one for Rep78 and one for Rep52), each under the control of a separate insect cell promoter, the ΔIE1 and PolH promoters, respectively. However, Kohlbrenner et al. (2005, Mol. Ther. 12: 1217-25; WO 2005/072364) reported that the baculovirus construct for expression of the two Rep protein, as used by Urabe et al., suffers from an inherent instability. By splitting the palindromic orientation of the two Rep genes in Urabe's original vector and designing two separate baculovirus vectors for expressing Rep52 and Rep78, Kohlbrenner et al. (2005, supra) increased the passaging stability of the vector. However, despite the consistent expression of Rep78 and Rep52 from the two independent baculovirus-Rep constructs in insect cells over at least 5 passages, rAAV vector yield is 5 to 10-fold lower as compared to the original baculovirus-Rep construct designed by Urabe et al. (2002, supra).

In application WO2007/148971 the present inventors have significantly improved the stability of rAAV vector production in insect cells by using a single coding sequence for the Rep78 and Rep52 proteins wherein a suboptimal initiator codon is used for the Rep78 protein that is partially skipped by the scanning ribosomes to allow for initiation of translation to also occur further downstream at the initiation codon of the Rep52 protein.

International patent application WO 2007/084773 discloses a method of rAAV production in insect cells, wherein the production of infectious viral particles is increased by supplementing VP1 relative to VP2 and VP3. Supplementation can be effected by introducing into the insect cell a capsid vector comprising nucleotide sequences expressing VP1, VP2 and VP3 and additionally introducing into the insect cell a nucleotide sequences expressing VP1, which may be either on the same capsid vector or on a different vector.

There is however still a need for further improvements in large scale (commercial) production of parvoviral vectors in insect cells. Thus it is an object of the present invention to provide for means and methods that allow for stable and high yield (large scale) production of parvoviral vectors and for production which results in an improved full:empty particle ratio (i.e. a greater proportion of filled particles).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to a method for the production of a recombinant parvoviral virion. The use of such a method may allow for the production of such virions at increased production titres. The use of the method may alternatively, or additionally, allow production having a greater proportion of filled particles, i.e. a more favourable full:empty ratio or total:full ratio.

The invention provides a method for the production of a recombinant parvoviral virion, which method comprises the steps of:

-   -   (a) providing an insect cell comprising one or more nucleic acid         constructs comprising:         -   (i) a nucleotide sequence comprising a transgene that is             flanked by at least one parvoviral inverted terminal repeat             nucleotide sequence;         -   (ii) a first expression cassette comprising a nucleotide             sequence encoding a parvoviral Rep protein which is operably             linked to a first promoter that is capable of driving             expression of the Rep protein in the insect cell;         -   (iii) a second expression cassette comprising a nucleotide             sequence encoding a parvoviral capsid protein which is             operably linked to a second promoter that is capable of             driving expression of the capsid protein in the insect cell;     -   (b) culturing the cell defined in (a) under a condition         conducive to the expression of the Rep and the capsid protein;         and,     -   (c) optionally recovering of the recombinant parvoviral virion;

wherein the first and second expression cassettes are present on a single nucleic acid construct and wherein the first and second expression cassettes, when present in equimolar amount in the insect cell produce a ratio of levels of Rep protein encoding mRNA versus capsid protein encoding mRNA of at least 0.5 as determined by quantitative reverse-transcription PCR at a time point between 24 and 72 hours after transfection.

The invention also provides:

a nucleic acid construct comprising a first and a second expression cassette as defined above, wherein:

-   -   (a) the first promoter is a p10 promoter and the second promoter         is a PolH promoter or a 4×Hsp27 EcRE+minimal Hsp70 promoter;     -   (b) the first promoter is a 4×Hsp27 EcRE+minimal Hsp70 promoter         and the second promoter is a PolH promoter;     -   (c) the first promoter is a PolH promoter and the second         promoter is a p10, a deltaE1 or an E1 promoter;     -   (d) the first promoter is a PolH promoter and the second         promoter is a deltaE1 or an E1 promoter;     -   (e) the first promoter is a p10 promoter and the second promoter         is a deltaE1 or an E1 promoter; or     -   (f) the first promoter is a PolH promoter and the second         promoter is a PolH promoter.         and wherein the first expression cassette optionally comprises         an enhancer element;

an insect cell as defined above; and

a kit comprising

-   -   (a) a nucleic acid construct comprising the first and second         expression cassette as defined above; and     -   (b) a nucleic acid construct comprising a nucleotide sequence         encoding a multiple cloning site for a transgene that is flanked         by at least one parvoviral inverted terminal repeat nucleotide         sequence, which transgene is operably linked to a promoter         capable of driving expression of the transgene in a host cell.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 shows a schematic representation of the construction of pVD118(new).

FIG. 2 shows a schematic representation of the construction of pVD118(new)+HR1.

FIG. 3 shows a schematic representation of the construction of pVD165.

FIG. 4 shows a schematic representation of the construction of pVD165+HR1.

FIG. 5 shows a schematic representation of the construction of pVD165+4×EcRE CAP.

FIG. 6 shows a schematic representation of the construction of pVD165+4*EcRE Rep78.

FIG. 7 shows a schematic representation of the construction of pVD165+deltaIE1 CAP.

FIG. 8 shows a schematic representation of the construction of deltaIE1 Cap+pPolh Rep (pVD190).

FIG. 9 shows a schematic representation of the construction of p10 Cap+pPolh Rep.

FIG. 10 shows a schematic representation of the construction of pVD194.

FIG. 11A shows Western blot analysis of Cap and Rep proteins expressed from Bac.VD194, three days after infection with the baculovirus ratios 1:1 and 5:1 (C=Bac.VD88:Bac.VD84:Bac.VD43 at 5:1:1 respectively). FIG. 11B shows the viral titres for the same productions analyzed in FIG. 11A.

DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Definitions

As used herein, the term “operably linked” refers to a linkage of polynucleotide (or polypeptide) elements in a functional relationship. A nucleic acid is “operably linked” when it is placed into a functional relationship with another nucleic acid sequence. For instance, a transcription regulatory sequence is operably linked to a coding sequence if it affects the transcription of the coding sequence. Operably linked means that the DNA sequences being linked are typically contiguous and, where necessary to join two protein encoding regions, contiguous and in reading frame.

“Expression control sequence” refers to a nucleic acid sequence that regulates the expression of a nucleotide sequence to which it is operably linked.

An expression control sequence is “operably linked” to a nucleotide sequence when the expression control sequence controls and regulates the transcription and/or the translation of the nucleotide sequence. Thus, an expression control sequence can include promoters, enhancers, internal ribosome entry sites (IRES), transcription terminators, a start codon in front of a protein-encoding gene, splicing signal for introns, and stop codons. The term “expression control sequence” is intended to include, at a minimum, a sequence whose presence is designed to influence expression, and can also include additional advantageous components. For example, leader sequences and fusion partner sequences are expression control sequences. The term can also include the design of the nucleic acid sequence such that undesirable, potential initiation codons in and out of frame, are removed from the sequence. It can also include the design of the nucleic acid sequence such that undesirable potential splice sites are removed. It includes sequences or polyadenylation sequences (pA) which direct the addition of a polyA tail, i.e., a string of adenine residues at the 3′-end of a mRNA, sequences referred to as polyA sequences. It also can be designed to enhance mRNA stability. Expression control sequences which affect the transcription and translation stability, e.g., promoters, as well as sequences which effect the translation, e.g., Kozak sequences, are known in insect cells. Expression control sequences can be of such nature as to modulate the nucleotide sequence to which it is operably linked such that lower expression levels or higher expression levels are achieved.

As used herein, the term “promoter” or “transcription regulatory sequence” refers to a nucleic acid fragment that functions to control the transcription of one or more coding sequences, and is located upstream with respect to the direction of transcription of the transcription initiation site of the coding sequence, and is structurally identified by the presence of a binding site for DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, transcription initiation sites and any other DNA sequences, including, but not limited to transcription factor binding sites, repressor and activator protein binding sites, and any other sequences of nucleotides known to one of skill in the art to act directly or indirectly to regulate the amount of transcription from the promoter. A “constitutive” promoter is a promoter that is active in most tissues under most physiological and developmental conditions. An “inducible” promoter is a promoter that is physiologically or developmentally regulated, e.g. by the application of a chemical inducer. A “tissue specific” promoter is only active in specific types of tissues or cells.

“Sequence identity” and “sequence similarity” can be determined by alignment of two peptide or two nucleotide sequences using global or local alignment algorithms, depending on the length of the two sequences. Sequences of similar lengths are preferably aligned using a global alignment algorithms (e.g. Needleman Wunsch) which aligns the sequences optimally over the entire length, while sequences of substantially different lengths are preferably aligned using a local alignment algorithm (e.g. Smith Waterman). Sequences may then be referred to as “substantially identical” or “essentially similar” when they (when optimally aligned by for example the programs GAP or BESTFIT using default parameters) share at least a certain minimal percentage of sequence identity (as defined below). GAP uses the Needleman and Wunsch global alignment algorithm to align two sequences over their entire length (full length), maximizing the number of matches and minimizing the number of gaps. A global alignment is suitably used to determine sequence identity when the two sequences have similar lengths. Generally, the GAP default parameters are used, with a gap creation penalty=50 (nucleotides)/8 (proteins) and gap extension penalty=3 (nucleotides)/2 (proteins). For nucleotides the default scoring matrix used is nwsgapdna and for proteins the default scoring matrix is Blosum62 (Henikoff & Henikoff, 1992, PNAS 89, 915-919). Sequence alignments and scores for percentage sequence identity may be determined using computer programs, such as the GCG Wisconsin Package, Version 10.3, available from Accelrys Inc., 9685 Scranton Road, San Diego, Calif. 92121-3752 USA, or using open source software, such as the program “needle” (using the global Needleman Wunsch algorithm) or “water” (using the local Smith Waterman algorithm) in EmbossWIN version 2.10.0, using the same parameters as for GAP above, or using the default settings (both for ‘needle’ and for ‘water’ and both for protein and for DNA alignments, the default Gap opening penalty is 10.0 and the default gap extension penalty is 0.5; default scoring matrices are Blossum62 for proteins and DNAFull for DNA). When sequences have a substantially different overall lengths, local alignments, such as those using the Smith Waterman algorithm, are preferred. Alternatively percentage similarity or identity may be determined by searching against public databases, using algorithms such as FASTA, BLAST, etc.

Nucleotide sequences encoding parvoviral Cap and/or Rep proteins of the invention may also be defined by their capability to hybridise with the nucleotide sequences of SEQ ID NO.'s 20, 22, 24 and 1-4, respectively, under moderate, or preferably under stringent hybridisation conditions.

Stringent hybridisation conditions are herein defined as conditions that allow a nucleic acid sequence of at least about 25, preferably about 50 nucleotides, 75 or 100 and most preferably of about 200 or more nucleotides, to hybridise at a temperature of about 65° C. in a solution comprising about 1 M salt, preferably 6×SSC or any other solution having a comparable ionic strength, and washing at 65° C. in a solution comprising about 0.1 M salt, or less, preferably 0.2×SSC or any other solution having a comparable ionic strength. Preferably, the hybridisation is performed overnight, i.e. at least for 10 hours and preferably washing is performed for at least one hour with at least two changes of the washing solution. These conditions will usually allow the specific hybridisation of sequences having about 90% or more sequence identity.

Moderate conditions are herein defined as conditions that allow a nucleic acid sequences of at least 50 nucleotides, preferably of about 200 or more nucleotides, to hybridise at a temperature of about 45° C. in a solution comprising about 1 M salt, preferably 6×SSC or any other solution having a comparable ionic strength, and washing at room temperature in a solution comprising about 1 M salt, preferably 6×SSC or any other solution having a comparable ionic strength. Preferably, the hybridisation is performed overnight, i.e. at least for 10 hours, and preferably washing is performed for at least one hour with at least two changes of the washing solution. These conditions will usually allow the specific hybridisation of sequences having up to 50% sequence identity. The person skilled in the art will be able to modify these hybridisation conditions in order to specifically identify sequences varying in identity between 50% and 90%.

A “vector” is a nucleic acid molecule (typically DNA or RNA) that serves to transfer a passenger nucleic acid sequence (i.e., DNA or RNA) into a host cell. Three common types of vectors include plasmids, phages and viruses. Preferably, the vector is a virus. Vectors that contain both a promoter and a cloning site into which a polynucleotide can be operatively linked are well known in the art. Such vectors are capable of transcribing RNA in vitro or in vivo, and are commercially available from sources such as Stratagene (La Jolla, Calif.) and Promega Biotech (Madison, Wis.). In order to optimize expression and/or in vitro transcription, it may be necessary to remove, add or alter 5′ and/or 3′ untranslated portions of the clones to eliminate extra, potential inappropriate alternative translation initiation codons or other sequences that may interfere with or reduce expression, either at the level of transcription or translation. Alternatively, consensus ribosome binding sites can be inserted immediately 5′ of the start codon to enhance expression.

A “viral vector” refers to a vector comprising some or all of the following: viral genes encoding a gene product, control sequences and viral packaging sequences.

A “parvoviral vector” is defined as a recombinantly produced parvovirus or parvoviral particle that comprises a polynucleotide to be delivered into a host cell, either in vivo, ex vivo or in vitro. Examples of parvoviral vectors include e.g., adeno-associated virus vectors. Herein, a parvoviral vector construct refers to the polynucleotide comprising the viral genome or part thereof, and a transgene.

The adaptiveness of a nucleotide sequence encoding an enzyme to the codon usage of a host cell may be expressed as codon adaptation index (CAI). The codon adaptation index is herein defined as a measurement of the relative adaptiveness of the codon usage of a gene towards the codon usage of highly expressed genes in a particular host cell or organism. The relative adaptiveness (w) of each codon is the ratio of the usage of each codon, to that of the most abundant codon for the same amino acid. The CAI index is defined as the geometric mean of these relative adaptiveness values. Non-synonymous codons and termination codons (dependent on genetic code) are excluded. CAI values range from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating a higher proportion of the most abundant codons (see Sharp and Li, 1987, Nucleic Acids Research 15: 1281-1295; also see: Jansen et al., 2003, Nucleic Acids Res. 31(8):2242-51).

The term “reporter” (or reporter gene or protein) is mainly used to refer to nucleotide sequence encoding visible marker proteins, such as green fluorescent protein (GFP), eGFP, other fluorescent proteins, luciferase, secreted alkaline phosphatase (SEAP), GUS and the like, as well as nptII markers and the like

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the use of parvoviruses, in particular dependoviruses such as infectious human or simian AAV, and the components thereof (e.g., a parvovirus genome) for use as vectors for introduction and/or expression of nucleic acids in mammalian cells, preferably human cells. In particular, the invention relates to improvements in productivity of such parvoviral vectors when produced in insect cells.

Productivity in this context encompasses improvements in production titres and improvements in the quality of the resulting product, for example a product which has improved an total:full ratio (a measure of the number of particles which comprise nucleic acid). That is to say, the final product may have an increased proportion of filled particles, where filled implies that the particle comprises nucleic acid.

Viruses of the Parvoviridae family are small DNA viruses. The family Parvoviridae may be divided between two subfamilies: the Parvovirinae, which infect vertebrates, and the Densovirinae, which infect invertebrates, including insects. Members of the subfamily Parvovirinae are herein referred to as the parvoviruses and include the genus Dependovirus. As may be deduced from the name of their genus, members of the Dependovirus are unique in that they usually require coinfection with a helper virus such as adenovirus or herpes virus for productive infection in cell culture. The genus Dependovirus includes AAV, which normally infects humans (e.g., serotypes 1, 2, 3A, 3B, 4, 5, and 6) or primates (e.g., serotypes 1 and 4), and related viruses that infect other warm-blooded animals (e.g., bovine, canine, equine, and ovine adeno-associated viruses). Further information on parvoviruses and other members of the Parvoviridae is described in Kenneth I. Berns, “Parvoviridae: The Viruses and Their Replication,” Chapter 69 in Fields Virology (3d Ed. 1996). For convenience, the present invention is further exemplified and described herein by reference to AAV. It is however understood that the invention is not limited to AAV but may equally be applied to other parvoviruses.

The genomic organization of all known AAV serotypes is very similar. The genome of AAV is a linear, single-stranded DNA molecule that is less than about 5,000 nucleotides (nt) in length. Inverted terminal repeats (ITRs) flank the unique coding nucleotide sequences for the non-structural replication (Rep) proteins and the structural (VP) proteins. The VP proteins (VP1, -2 and -3) form the capsid. The terminal 145 nt are self-complementary and are organized so that an energetically stable intramolecular duplex forming a T-shaped hairpin may be formed. These hairpin structures function as an origin for viral DNA replication, serving as primers for the cellular DNA polymerase complex. Following wtAAV infection in mammalian cells the Rep genes (i.e. Rep78 and Rep52) are expressed from the P5 promoter and the P19 promoter, respectively and both Rep proteins have a function in the replication of the viral genome. A splicing event in the Rep ORF results in the expression of actually four Rep proteins (i.e. Rep78, Rep68, Rep52 and Rep40).

However, it has been shown that the unspliced mRNA, encoding Rep78 and Rep52 proteins, in mammalian cells are sufficient for AAV vector production. Also in insect cells the Rep78 and Rep52 proteins suffice for AAV vector production.

A “recombinant parvoviral or AAV vector” (or “rAAV vector”) herein refers to a vector comprising one or more polynucleotide sequences of interest, genes of interest or “transgenes” that is/are flanked by at least one parvoviral or AAV inverted terminal repeat sequence (ITR). Preferably, the transgene(s) is/are flanked by ITRs, one on each side of the transgene(s). Such rAAV vectors can be replicated and packaged into infectious viral particles when present in an insect host cell that is expressing AAV rep and cap gene products (i.e. AAV Rep and Cap proteins). When an rAAV vector is incorporated into a larger nucleic acid construct (e.g. in a chromosome or in another vector such as a plasmid or baculovirus used for cloning or transfection), then the rAAV vector is typically referred to as a “pro-vector” which can be “rescued” by replication and encapsidation in the presence of AAV packaging functions and necessary helper functions.

The invention relates to a method for producing a recombinant parvoviral (rAAV) virion, comprising a recombinant parvoviral (rAAV) vector, in an insect cell.

In a first aspect, the invention relates to a method for the production of a recombinant parvoviral virion comprising the steps of: (a) providing an insect cell comprising one or more nucleic acid constructs comprising: (i) a nucleotide sequence comprising a transgene that is flanked by at least one parvoviral inverted terminal repeat nucleotide sequence; (ii) a first expression cassette comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a parvoviral Rep protein which is operably linked to a first promoter that is capable of driving expression of the Rep protein in the insect cell; (iii) a second expression cassette comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a parvoviral capsid protein which is operably linked to a second promoter that is capable of driving expression of the capsid protein in the insect cell; (b) culturing the cell defined in (a) under a condition conducive to the expression of the Rep and the capsid protein; and, (c) optionally recovery of the recombinant parvoviral virion. Preferably, in the insect cell, the first and second expression cassettes are present on a single nucleic acid construct.

Preferably, the first and second expression cassettes, when present in equimolar amount in an insect cell produce a ratio of levels of Rep protein encoding mRNA versus capsid protein encoding mRNA of at least about 0.5, at least about 0.75, at least about 1.0, at least about 1.5, at least about 2.0, at least about 5.0 or at least about 10.0. The levels of Rep and capsid encoding mRNAs are preferably determined by quantitative reverse-transcription PCR, Northern blot, or other means for RNA quantification know in the art.

Preferably, the ratio of the levels of Rep and capsid encoding mRNAs are produced in the insect cell at a time point from 24, 30, 36, 40, 44 or 46 hours after transfection to 72, 66, 60, 54, 52, or 50 hours after transfection. More preferably the ratio of the levels of Rep and capsid encoding mRNAs are at least produced in the insect cell 2 or 1 hour around 48 hours after transfection.

Alternatively preferred, the first and second expression cassettes, when present in equimolar amount in an insect cell produce a ratio of levels of Rep protein versus capsid protein of at least about 0.5, at least about 0.75, at least about 1.0, at least about 1.5, at least about 2.0, at least about 5.0 or at least about 10.0. The Rep and capsid protein levels are preferably determined using reference antibodies against the Rep and capsid proteins in a quantitative immunoassay (e.g. ELISA or quantitative Western-blot). Preferably, the ratio of the Rep and capsid protein levels are produced in the insect cell at a time point from 24, 30, 36, 40, 44 or 46 hours after transfection to 72, 66, 60, 54, 52, or 50 hours after transfection. More preferably the ratio of the Rep and capsid protein levels are produced in the insect cell 2 or 1 hour around 48 hours after transfection. Suitable reference antibodies for quantification of AAV Rep and capsid protein levels are e.g Anti-AAV-rep mouse monoclonal, clone 303.9, or anti-AAV VP1/VP2/VP3, mouse monoclonal, clone B1 obtainable from PROGEN Biotechnik GmbH.

In the method of the invention, the first and second expression cassettes are present on a single nucleic acid construct. One of the advantages of both expression cassettes being present on a single nucleic acid construct is that transfected insect cells will express both Rep protein and capsid protein. Only expression of both Rep protein and capsid protein in an insect cell will result in the formation of parvoviral virions. Another advantage is that the minimum required ratio of expression of the Rep protein versus the capsid protein can be controlled when the first and second expression cassettes are on one single construct.

It is an embodiment of the invention that another nucleic acid construct comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a Rep protein may also be present in the cell.

In a method of the invention, the nucleotide sequence of the first expression cassette (ii) may preferably comprise only one open reading frame comprising nucleotide sequences encoding at least one of the Rep78 and Rep 68 proteins. That is to say, the Rep protein or proteins will be encoded by a single open reading frame, not by two or more open reading frames. To put it another way, the first expression cassette will typically not have two or more separate open reading frames encoding the same or different Rep proteins. For the avoidance of doubt, however, a single open reading frame may be capable of encoding more than one protein, for example two, three or four proteins.

All of the above may apply equally to the VP1, VP2 and VP3 proteins, i.e. two or all of those proteins may conveniently all be encoded by a single open reading frame.

Typically, in a method of the invention, at least one open reading frame comprising nucleotide sequences encoding the VP1, VP2 and VP3 capsid proteins or at least one open reading frame comprising an open reading frame comprising nucleotide sequences encoding at least one of the Rep78 and Rep68 proteins does not comprise an artificial intron (or a sequence derived from an artificial intron). That is to say, at least open reading frames used to encode Rep or VP proteins will not comprise an artificial intron. By artificial intron is meant an intron which would not naturally occur in an adeno-associated virus Rep or Cap sequence, for example an intron which has been engineered so as to permit functional splicing within an insect cell. An artificial intron in this context therefore encompass wild-type insect cell introns. An expression cassette of the invention may comprise native truncated intron sequence (by native is meant sequence naturally occurring in an adeno-associated virus)—such sequences are not intended to fall within the meaning of artificial intron as defined herein.

In the invention, one possibility is that no open reading frame comprising nucleotide sequences encoding the VP1, VP2 and VP3 capsid proteins and/or no open reading frame comprising nucleotide sequences encoding at least one of the Rep78 and Rep68 proteins comprises an artificial intron.

In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the nucleotide sequence comprising the transgene is also on same nucleic acid construct as first and second expression cassettes. An advantage thereof is, that all transfected cells comprise each of the three nucleotide sequences, that are needed for parvoviral virion production.

In addition, the present inventors found, that the higher the Rep protein:capsid protein ratio, the higher the full virion vs empty virion ratio is. The term “full virion” refers to a virion particle that comprises a parvoviral vector. The term “empty virion” refers to a virion particle that does not comprise a parvoviral vector. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the full virion vs empty virion ratio is at least 1:100 more preferably at least 1:10 and even more preferably at least 1:1. Even more preferably, no empty virions can be detected and most preferably no empty virions are present. The person skilled in the art will know how to determine the full virion vs empty virion ratio, for example by dividing gene copy number by (total capsid—genome copy number), since per virion there will be only one genome copy present. Inversely, the higher the Rep protein:capsid protein ratio, the lower the ratio of empty virions vs. total virions (i.e., full+empty virions). The skilled artisan will know how to determine such ratio's. For example, the ratio of empty virions vs. total capsids may be determined by dividing the amount of genome copies (i.e. genome copy number) by the amount of total parvoviral particles (i.e. number of parvoviral particles), wherein the amount of genome copies per ml is measured by quantitative PCR and the amount of total parvoviral particles per ml is measured with an enzyme immunoassay, e.g. from Progen. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the ratio of empty virions vs. total virions is less than 100:1, more preferably less than 10:1, and even more preferably less than 1:1. Even more preferably, no empty virions can be detected, and most preferably no empty virions are present.

In a preferred embodiment, the ratio of expression of the Rep versus the capsid protein is regulated by one or more of the following: (a) the first promoter is equally strong or stronger than the second promoter, as determined by reporter gene expression (eg luciferase or SEAP), or northern blot; (b) the presence of more and/or stronger enhancer elements in the first expression cassette as compared to the second expression cassette; (c) the nucleotide sequence coding for the parvoviral Rep protein has a higher codon adaptation index as compared to the nucleotide sequence coding for the capsid protein; (d) temperature optimization of the parvoviral Rep protein; and/or (e) variant Rep proteins with one or more alterations in the amino acid sequence as compared to a corresponding wild-type Rep protein and wherein the one or more amino acid alteration result in increases in the activity of the Rep function as assessed by detecting increased AAV production in insect cells. Methods for generation, selection and/or screening of variant Rep proteins with increased activity of Rep function as assessed by detecting increased AAV production in insect cells may be obtained by adaptation to insect cells of the methods described in US20030134351 for obtaining variant Rep proteins with increased function with respect to AAV production in mammalian cells. Variant Rep proteins with one or more alterations in the amino acid sequence as compared to a corresponding wild-type Rep protein are herein understood to include Rep proteins with one or more amino acid substitutions, insertions and/or deletions in the variant amino acid sequence as compared to the amino acid sequence of a corresponding wild type Rep protein.

The first promoter being equally strong or stronger than the second promoter means that in case of more nucleotide sequences encoding for a Rep protein than nucleotide sequences encoding for a capsid protein, an equally strong promoter may be used, since expression of Rep protein will then be increased as compared to expression of capsid protein, whereas in case of similar amounts of nucleotide sequences encoding for Rep and encoding for capsid protein, a stronger promoter may be used for expression Rep protein than for expression of capsid protein. The strength of the promoter may be determined by the expression that is obtained under conditions that are used in the method of the invention. In a preferred embodiment, the first promoter or the second promoter is selected from the group consisting of a PolH promoter, p10 promoter, basic protein promoter, an inducible promoter or a deltaE1 promoter or a E1 promoter, or any other late or very late baculovirus gene promoter. More preferably, the first promoter is selected from the group consisting of a PolH promoter, p10 promoter or basic protein promoter and wherein the second promoter is a deltaE1 promoter or a E1 promoter, or any other early or late baculovirus gene promoter. Preferably, the first promoter in the nucleic acid construct of the invention is a p10 promoter and the second promoter is a PolH promoter or a 4×Hsp27 EcRE+minimal Hsp70 promoter. In another embodiment, the first promoter in the nucleic acid construct of the invention is a 4×Hsp27 EcRE+minimal Hsp70 promoter and the second promoter is a PolH promoter. In yet another embodiment, the first promoter in the nucleic acid construct of the invention is a PolH promoter and the second promoter is a p10, a deltaE1 or an E1 promoter. In yet another embodiment, the first promoter in the nucleic acid construct of the invention is a PolH promoter and the second promoter is a deltaE1 or an E1 promoter. In yet another embodiment, the first promoter in the nucleic acid construct of the invention is a p10 promoter and the second promoter is a deltaE1 or an E1 promoter. In yet another embodiment, the first promoter in the nucleic acid construct of the invention is a PolH promoter and the second promoter is a PolH promoter. Most preferably, the first promoter in the nucleic acid construct op the invention is a PolH promoter and the second promoter is a deltaE1 promoter.

An “enhancer element” or “enhancer” is meant to define a sequence which enhances the activity of a promoter (i.e. increases the rate of transcription of a sequence downstream of the promoter) which, as opposed to a promoter, does not possess promoter activity, and which can usually function irrespective of its location with respect to the promoter (i.e. upstream, or downstream of the promoter). Enhancer elements are well-known in the art. Non-limiting examples of enhancer elements (or parts thereof) which could be used in the present invention include baculovirus enhancers and enhancer elements found in insect cells. It is preferred that the enhancer element increases in a cell the mRNA expression of a gene, to which the promoter it is operably linked, by at least 25%, more preferably at least 50%, even more preferably at least 100%, and most preferably at least 200% as compared to the mRNA expression of the gene in the absence of the enhancer element. mRNA expression may be determined for example by quantitative RT-PCR.

Herein it is preferred to use an enhancer element to enhance the expression of parvoviral Rep protein. Thus, in a further preferred embodiment, the first expression cassette comprises at least one baculovirus enhancer element and/or at least one ecdysone responsive element. Preferably the enhancer element is selected from the group consisting of hr1, hr2, hr3, hr4 and hr5.

Codon optimization of the parvoviral Rep protein is discussed in more detail hereafter.

Temperature optimization of the parvoviral Rep protein refers to use the optimal condition with respect to both the temperature at which the insect cell will grow and Rep is functioning. A Rep protein may for example be optimally active at 37° C., whereas an insect cell may grow optimally at 28° C. A temperature at which both the Rep protein is active and the insect cell grows may be 30° C. In a preferred embodiment, the optimized temperature is more than 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34 or 35° C. and/or less than 37, 36, 35, 34, 33, 32, 31, 30 or 29° C.

As will be understood by the skilled person in the art, the full virion:empty virion ratio may also be improved by attenuated Cap expression, for example by means of a weaker promoter, as compared to moderate to high Rep expression.

Preferably a nucleic acid construct of the invention, is an insect cell-compatible vector. An “insect cell-compatible vector” or “vector” is understood to a nucleic acid molecule capable of productive transformation or transfection of an insect or insect cell. Exemplary biological vectors include plasmids, linear nucleic acid molecules, and recombinant viruses. Any vector can be employed as long as it is insect cell-compatible. The vector may integrate into the insect cells genome but the presence of the vector in the insect cell need not be permanent and transient episomal vectors are also included. The vectors can be introduced by any means known, for example by chemical treatment of the cells, electroporation, or infection. In a preferred embodiment, the vector is a baculovirus, a viral vector, or a plasmid. In a more preferred embodiment, the vector is a baculovirus, i.e. the nucleic acid construct is a baculovirus-expression vector. Baculovirus-expression vectors and methods for their use are described for example in Summers and Smith. 1986. A Manual of Methods for Baculovirus Vectors and Insect Culture Procedures, Texas Agricultural Experimental Station Bull. No. 7555, College Station, Tex.; Luckow. 1991. In Prokop et al., Cloning and Expression of Heterologous Genes in Insect Cells with Baculovirus Vectors' Recombinant DNA Technology and Applications, 97-152; King, L. A. and R. D. Possee, 1992, The baculovirus expression system, Chapman and Hall, United Kingdom; O'Reilly, D. R., L. K. Miller, V. A. Luckow, 1992, Baculovirus Expression Vectors: A Laboratory Manual, New York; W. H. Freeman and Richardson, C. D., 1995, Baculovirus Expression Protocols, Methods in Molecular Biology, volume 39; U.S. Pat. No. 4,745,051; US2003148506; and WO 03/074714.

The number of nucleic acid constructs employed in the insect cell for the production of the recombinant parvoviral (rAAV) vector is not limiting in the invention. For example, one, two, three or more separate constructs can be employed to produce rAAV in insect cells in accordance with the methods of the present invention. If two constructs are employed, one construct may comprise the nucleotide sequence comprising the transgene that is flanked by at least one parvoviral ITR sequence and the other construct may then comprise a first and a second expression cassette. If three constructs are employed, one construct may comprise the nucleotide sequence comprising the transgene that is flanked by at least one parvoviral ITR sequence, another construct may comprise the first and second expression cassettes and still another construct may comprise an additional nucleotide sequence encoding for a Rep protein, optionally either codon optimized, AT-optimized or GC-optimized, in order to minimize or prevent recombination, as described hereinafter.

A nucleotide sequence encoding parvoviral Rep proteins, is herein understood as a nucleotide sequence encoding the non-structural Rep proteins that are required and sufficient for parvoviral vector production in insect cells such the Rep78 or Rep68, and/or the Rep52 or Rep40 proteins. The parvovirus nucleotide sequence preferably is from a dependovirus, more preferably from a human or simian adeno-associated virus (AAV) and most preferably from an AAV which normally infects humans (e.g., serotypes 1, 2, 3A, 3B, 4, 5, and 6) or primates (e.g., serotypes 1 and 4). An example of a nucleotide sequence encoding parvovirus Rep proteins is given in SEQ ID No 5, which depicts a part of the AAV serotype-2 sequence genome encoding the Rep proteins. The Rep78 coding sequence comprises nucleotides 11-1876 and the Rep52 coding sequence comprises nucleotides 683-1876, also depicted separately in SEQ ID No. 5 and 7. It is understood that the exact molecular weights of the Rep78 and Rep52 proteins, as well as the exact positions of the translation initiation codons may differ between different parvoviruses. However, the skilled person will know how to identify the corresponding position in nucleotide sequence from other parvoviruses than AAV-2.

In a preferred embodiment, the first expression cassette comprises a nucleotide sequence that encodes an amino acid sequence of a parvoviral Rep52 or 40 protein and/or a nucleotide sequence that encodes an amino acid sequence of a parvoviral Rep78 or 68 protein. Preferably, the parvoviral Rep proteins are adeno-associated virus (AAV) Rep proteins.

In a preferred embodiment, the invention relates to an insect cell that comprises no more than one type of nucleotide sequence comprising a single open reading frame encoding a parvoviral Rep protein. Preferably the single open reading frame encodes one or more of the parvoviral Rep proteins, more preferably the open reading frame encodes all of the parvoviral Rep proteins, most preferably the open reading frame encodes the full-length Rep 78 protein from which preferably at least both Rep 52 and Rep 78 proteins may be expressed in the insect cell. It is understood herein that the insect cell may comprise more than one copy of the single type of nucleotide sequence, e.g. in a multicopy episomal vector, but that these are multiple copies of essentially one and the same nucleic acid molecule, or at least nucleic acid molecules that encode one and the same Rep amino acid sequence, e.g. nucleic acid molecules that only differ between each other due to the degeneracy of the genetic code. The presence of only a single type of nucleic acid molecule encoding the parvoviral Rep proteins avoids recombination between homologous sequences as may be present in different types of vectors comprising Rep sequences, which may give rise to defective Rep expression constructs that affect (stability of) parvoviral production levels in insect cells.

In an alternative embodiment of the invention, the first expression cassette comprises more than one nucleotide sequence encoding a parvoviral Rep protein. It is preferred that the nucleotide sequence of (ii) comprises an open reading frame comprising nucleotide sequences encoding at least one of the Rep78 and Rep68 proteins. Preferably, the nucleotide sequences are of the same serotype. More preferably, the nucleotide sequences differ from each other in that they may be either codon optimized, AT-optimized or GC-optimized, to minimize or prevent recombination. Preferably, the first expression cassette comprises two nucleotide sequences encoding a parvoviral Rep protein, i.e., a first nucleotide sequence and a second nucleotide sequence. Preferably, the difference in the first and the second nucleotide sequence coding for the common amino acid sequences of a parvoviral Rep protein is maximized (i.e., the nucleotide identity is minimized) by one or more of: a) changing the codon bias of the first nucleotide sequence coding for the parvoviral Rep common amino acid sequence; b) changing the codon bias of the second nucleotide sequence coding for the parvoviral Rep common amino acid sequence; c) changing the GC-content of the first nucleotide sequence coding for the common amino acid sequence; and d) changing the GC-content of the second nucleotide sequence coding for the common amino acid sequence. Codon optimization may be performed on the basis of the codon usage of the insect cell used in the method of the invention, preferably Spodoptera frugiperda, as may be found in a codon usage database (see, e.g., World Wide Web URL kazusa.or.jp/codon/). Suitable computer programs for codon optimization are available to the skilled person (see e.g., Jayaraj et al., 2005, Nucl. Acids Res. 33(9):3011-3016; and on the internet). Alternatively the optimizations can be done by hand, using the same codon usage database.

A nucleotide sequence of the first expression cassette encoding a parvoviral Rep52 protein may be defined as a nucleotide sequence:

-   -   a) that encodes a polypeptide comprising an amino acid sequence         that has at least 50, 60, 70, 80, 88, 89, 90, 95, 97, 98, or 99%         sequence identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO. 6     -   b) that has at least 50, 60, 70, 80, 81, 82, 85, 90, 95, 97, 98,         or 99% sequence identity with the nucleotide sequence of any one         of SEQ ID NO.'s 1-5;     -   c) the complementary strand of which hybridises to a nucleic         acid molecule sequence of (a) or (b);     -   d) nucleotide sequences the sequence of which differs from the         sequence of a nucleic acid molecule of (c) due to the degeneracy         of the genetic code.

A nucleotide sequence of the first expression cassette encoding a parvoviral Rep78 protein may be defined as a nucleotide sequence:

-   -   a) that encodes a polypeptide comprising an amino acid sequence         that has at least 50, 60, 70, 80, 88, 89, 90, 95, 97, 98, or 99%         sequence identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO. 8     -   b) that has at least 50, 60, 70, 80, 81, 82, 85, 90, 95, 97, 98,         or 99% sequence identity with the nucleotide sequence of         positions 11-1876 of SEQ ID NO. 7     -   c) the complementary strand of which hybridises to a nucleic         acid molecule sequence of (a) or (b);     -   d) nucleotide sequences the sequence of which differs from the         sequence of a nucleic acid molecule of (c) due to the degeneracy         of the genetic code.         Preferably, the nucleotide sequence encodes parvovirus Rep         proteins that are required and sufficient for parvoviral vector         production in insect cells.

Elimination of possible false translation initiation sites in the Rep protein coding sequences, other than the Rep78 and Rep52 translation initiation sites, of other parvoviruses will be well understood by an artisan of skill in the art, as will be the elimination of putative splice sites that may be recognised in insect cells.

In a preferred embodiment, the initiation codon for translation of the parvoviral Rep78 protein is a suboptimal initiation codon. The suboptimal initiation codon preferably is an initiation codon that effects partial exon skipping. Partial exon skipping is herein understood to mean that at least part of the ribosomes do not initiate translation at the suboptimal initiation codon of the Rep78 protein but at an initiation codon further downstream, whereby preferably the initiation codon further downstream is the initiation codon of the Rep52 protein. The suboptimal initiation codon preferably effects partial exon skipping upon expression of the nucleotide sequence in an insect cell. Preferably, the suboptimal initiation codon effects partial exon skipping in an insect cell so as to produce in the insect cell a molar ratio of Rep78 to Rep52 in the range of 1:10 to 10:1, 1:5 to 5:1, or 1:3 to 3:1, preferably at about 20-40 hours post infection, more preferably at about 30-40 hours post infection, using a baculovirus expression. The molar ration of the Rep78 and Rep52 may be determined by means of Western blotting, preferably using a monoclonal antibody that recognizes a common epitope of both Rep78 and Rep52, or using e.g. a mouse anti-Rep antibody (303.9, Progen, Germany; dilution 1:50).

The term “suboptimal initiation codon” herein not only refers to the tri-nucleotide intitiation codon itself but also to its context. Thus, a suboptimal initiation codon may consist of an “optimal” ATG codon in a suboptimal context, e.g. a non-Kozak context. However, more preferred are suboptimal initiation codons wherein the tri-nucleotide intitiation codon itself is suboptimal, i.e. is not ATG. Suboptimal is herein understood to mean that the codon is less efficient in the inititiation of translation in an otherwise identical context as compared to the normal ATG codon. Preferably, the efficiency of suboptimal codon is less than 90, 80, 60, 40 or 20% of the efficiency of the normal ATG codon in an otherwise identical context. Methods for comparing the relative efficiency of inititiation of translation are known per se to the skilled person. Preferred suboptimal initiation codons may be selected from ACG, TTG, CTG, and GTG. More preferred is ACG. A nucleotide sequence encoding parvovirus Rep proteins, is herein understood as a nucleotide sequence encoding the non-structural Rep proteins that are required and sufficient for parvoviral vector production in insect cells such the Rep78 and Rep52 proteins.

It is also possible to replace other ATG's in the sequence with a different codon encoding methionine so that the in less possibility of initiating translation from such ATG's.

Various modifications of the coding nucleotide sequence as defined above, including e.g. the wild-type parvoviral sequences, for proper expression in insect cells is achieved by application of well-known genetic engineering techniques such as described e.g. in Sambrook and Russell (2001) “Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (3rd edition), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, New York. Various further modifications of coding regions are known to the skilled artisan which could increase yield of the encode proteins. These modifications are within the scope of the present invention.

A nucleotide sequence encoding a parvoviral capsid (Cap) protein is herein understood to comprise nucleotide sequences encoding one or more of the three parvoviral capsid proteins, VP1, -2 and -3. The parvovirus nucleotide sequence preferably is from a dependovirus, more preferably from a human or simian adeno-associated virus (AAV) and most preferably from an AAV which normally infects humans (e.g., serotypes 1, 2, 3A, 3B, 4, 5, and 6) or primates (e.g., serotypes 1 and 4). Examples of a nucleotide sequence encoding parvovirus capsid proteins is given in SEQ ID No 20, 22 and 24.

In a preferred embodiment the nucleotide sequence of (iii) comprises an open reading frame comprising nucleotide sequences encoding the VP1, VP2 and VP3 capsid proteins. The capsid protein coding sequences may be present in various forms. E.g. separate coding sequences for each of the capsid proteins VP1, -2 and -3 may used, whereby each coding sequence is operably linked to expression control sequences for expression in an insect cell. More preferably, however, the second expression cassette comprises a nucleotide sequence comprising a single open reading frame encoding all three of the parvoviral (AAV) VP1, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins, wherein the initiation codon for translation of the VP1 capsid protein is a suboptimal initiation codon that is not ATG as e.g. described by Urabe et al. (2002, supra) and in WO2007/046703. A suboptimal initiation codon for the VP1 capsid protein may be as defined above for the Rep78 protein. More preferred suboptimal initiation codons for the VP1 capsid protein may be selected from ACG, TTG, CTG and GTG, of which CTG and GTG are most preferred. The nucleotide sequence comprised in the second expression cassette for expression of the capsid proteins may further comprise one or more modifications as described in WO2007/046703. Various further modifications of VP coding regions are known to the skilled artisan which could either increase yield of VP and virion or have other desired effects, such as altered tropism or reduce antigenicity of the virion. These modifications are within the scope of the present invention.

In a preferred embodiment, the expression of VP1 is increased as compared to the expression of VP2 and VP3. VP1 expression may be increased by supplementation of VP1, by introduction into the insect cell of a single vector comprising nucleotide sequences for the VP1 as has been described in WO 2007/084773.

In the context of the invention “at least one parvoviral inverted terminal repeat nucleotide sequence” is understood to mean a palindromic sequence, comprising mostly complementary, symmetrically arranged sequences also referred to as “A,” “B,” and “C” regions. The ITR functions as an origin of replication, a site having a “cis” role in replication, i.e., being a recognition site for trans acting replication proteins such as e.g. Rep 78 (or Rep68) which recognize the palindrome and specific sequences internal to the palindrome. One exception to the symmetry of the ITR sequence is the “D” region of the ITR. It is unique (not having a complement within one ITR). Nicking of single-stranded DNA occurs at the junction between the A and D regions. It is the region where new DNA synthesis initiates. The D region normally sits to one side of the palindrome and provides directionality to the nucleic acid replication step. A parvovirus replicating in a mammalian cell typically has two ITR sequences. It is, however, possible to engineer an ITR so that binding sites are on both strands of the A regions and D regions are located symmetrically, one on each side of the palindrome. On a double-stranded circular DNA template (e.g., a plasmid), the Rep78- or Rep68-assisted nucleic acid replication then proceeds in both directions and a single ITR suffices for parvoviral replication of a circular vector. Thus, one ITR nucleotide sequence can be used in the context of the present invention. Preferably, however, two or another even number of regular ITRs are used. Most preferably, two ITR sequences are used. A preferred parvoviral ITR is an AAV ITR. For safety reasons it may be desirable to construct a recombinant parvoviral (rAAV) vector that is unable to further propagate after initial introduction into a cell in the presence of a second AAV. Such a safety mechanism for limiting undesirable vector propagation in a recipient may be provided by using rAAV with a chimeric ITR as described in US2003148506.

The term “flanked” with respect to a sequence that is flanked by another element(s) herein indicates the presence of one or more of the flanking elements upstream and/or downstream, i.e., 5′ and/or 3′, relative to the sequence. The term “flanked” is not intended to indicate that the sequences are necessarily contiguous. For example, there may be intervening sequences between the nucleic acid encoding the transgene and a flanking element. A sequence that is “flanked” by two other elements (e.g. ITRs), indicates that one element is located 5′ to the sequence and the other is located 3′ to the sequence; however, there may be intervening sequences therebetween. In a preferred embodiment a nucleotide sequence of (i) is flanked on either side by parvoviral inverted terminal repeat nucleotide sequences.

In the embodiments of the invention, the nucleotide sequence comprising the transgene (encoding a gene product of interest) that is flanked by at least one parvoviral ITR sequence preferably becomes incorporated into the genome of a recombinant parvoviral (rAAV) vector produced in the insect cell. Preferably, the transgene encodes a gene product of interest for expression in a mammalian cell. Preferably, the nucleotide sequence comprising the transgene is flanked by two parvoviral (AAV) ITR nucleotide sequences and wherein the transgene is located in between the two parvoviral (AAV) ITR nucleotide sequences. Preferably, the nucleotide sequence encoding a gene product of interest (for expression in the mammalian cell) will be incorporated into the recombinant parvoviral (rAAV) vector produced in the insect cell if it is located between two regular ITRs, or is located on either side of an ITR engineered with two D regions.

AAV sequences that may be used in the present invention for the production of a recombinant AAV virion in insect cells can be derived from the genome of any AAV serotype. Generally, the AAV serotypes have genomic sequences of significant homology at the amino acid and the nucleic acid levels, provide an identical set of genetic functions, produce virions which are essentially physically and functionally equivalent, and replicate and assemble by practically identical mechanisms. For the genomic sequence of the various AAV serotypes and an overview of the genomic similarities see e.g. GenBank Accession number U89790; GenBank Accession number J01901; GenBank Accession number AF043303; GenBank Accession number AF085716; Chlorini et al. (1997, J. Vir. 71: 6823-33); Srivastava et al. (1983, J. Vir. 45:555-64); Chlorini et al. (1999, J. Vir. 73:1309-1319); Rutledge et al. (1998, J. Vir. 72:309-319); and Wu et al. (2000, J. Vir. 74: 8635-47). AAV serotypes 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are preferred source of AAV nucleotide sequences for use in the context of the present invention. Preferably the AAV ITR sequences for use in the context of the present invention are derived from AAV1, AAV2, and/or AAV4. Likewise, the Rep (Rep78/68 and Rep52/40) coding sequences are preferably derived from AAV1, AAV2, and/or AAV4. The sequences coding for the VP1, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins for use in the context of the present invention may however be taken from any of the known 42 serotypes, more preferably from AAV1, AAV2, AAV3, AAV4, AAV5, AAV6, AAV7, AAV8 or AAV9 or newly developed AAV-like particles obtained by e.g. capsid shuffling techniques and AAV capsid libraries, or from newly designed, developed or evolved ITR's.

AAV Rep and ITR sequences are particularly conserved among most serotypes. The Rep78 proteins of various AAV serotypes are e.g. more than 89% identical and the total nucleotide sequence identity at the genome level between AAV2, AAV3A, AAV3B, and AAV6 is around 82% (Bantel-Schaal et al., 1999, J. Virol., 73(2):939-947). Moreover, the Rep sequences and ITRs of many AAV serotypes are known to efficiently cross-complement (i.e., functionally substitute) corresponding sequences from other serotypes in production of AAV particles in mammalian cells. US2003148506 reports that AAV Rep and ITR sequences also efficiently cross-complement other AAV Rep and ITR sequences in insect cells.

The AAV VP proteins are known to determine the cellular tropicity of the AAV virion. The VP protein-encoding sequences are significantly less conserved than Rep proteins and genes among different AAV serotypes. The ability of Rep and ITR sequences to cross-complement corresponding sequences of other serotypes allows for the production of pseudotyped rAAV particles comprising the capsid proteins of a serotype (e.g., AAV3) and the Rep and/or ITR sequences of another AAV serotype (e.g., AAV2). Such pseudotyped rAAV particles are a part of the present invention.

Modified “AAV” sequences also can be used in the context of the present invention, e.g. for the production of rAAV vectors in insect cells. Such modified sequences e.g. include sequences having at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or more nucleotide and/or amino acid sequence identity (e.g., a sequence having about 75-99% nucleotide sequence identity) to an AAV1, AAV2, AAV3, AAV4, AAV5, AAV6, AAV7, AAV8 or AAV9 ITR, Rep, or VP can be used in place of wild-type AAV ITR, Rep, or VP sequences.

Although similar to other AAV serotypes in many respects, AAV5 differs from other human and simian AAV serotypes more than other known human and simian serotypes. In view thereof, the production of rAAV5 can differ from production of other serotypes in insect cells. Where methods of the invention are employed to produce rAAV5, it is preferred that one or more constructs comprising, collectively in the case of more than one construct, a nucleotide sequence comprising an AAV5 ITR, a nucleotide sequence comprises an AAV5 Rep coding sequence (i.e. a nucleotide sequence comprises an AAV5 Rep78). Such ITR and Rep sequences can be modified as desired to obtain efficient production of rAAV5 or pseudotyped rAAV5 vectors in insect cells. E.g., the start codon of the Rep sequences can be modified, VP splice sites can be modified or eliminated, and/or the VP1 start codon and nearby nucleotides can be modified to improve the production of rAAV5 vectors in the insect cell.

The nucleotide sequence comprising the transgene as defined herein above may thus comprise a nucleotide sequence encoding at least one “gene product of interest” for expression in a mammalian cell, located such that it will be incorporated into an recombinant parvoviral (rAAV) vector replicated in the insect cell. In the context of the invention it is understood that a particularly preferred mammalian cell in which the “gene product of interest” is to be expressed, is a human cell. Any nucleotide sequence can be incorporated for later expression in a mammalian cell transfected with the recombinant parvoviral (rAAV) vector produced in accordance with the present invention. The nucleotide sequence may e.g. encode a protein it may express an RNAi agent, i.e. an RNA molecule that is capable of RNA interference such as e.g. a shRNA (short hairpinRNA) or an siRNA (short interfering RNA). “siRNA” means a small interfering RNA that is a short-length double-stranded RNA that are not toxic in mammalian cells (Elbashir et al., 2001, Nature 411: 494-98; Caplen et al., 2001, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98: 9742-47). In a preferred embodiment, the nucleotide sequence comprising the transgene may comprise two coding nucleotide sequences, each encoding one gene product of interest for expression in a mammalian cell. Each of the two nucleotide sequences encoding a product of interest is located such that it will be incorporated into a recombinant parvoviral (rAAV) vector replicated in the insect cell.

The product of interest for expression in a mammalian cell may be a therapeutic gene product. A therapeutic gene product can be a polypeptide, or an RNA molecule (siRNA), or other gene product that, when expressed in a target cell, provides a desired therapeutic effect such as e.g. ablation of an undesired activity, e.g. the ablation of an infected cell, or the complementation of a genetic defect, e.g. causing a deficiency in an enzymatic activity. Examples of therapeutic polypeptide gene products include CFTR, Factor IX, Lipoprotein lipase (LPL, preferably LPL S447X; see WO 01/00220), Apolipoprotein A1, Uridine Diphosphate Glucuronosyltransferase (UGT), Retinitis Pigmentosa GTPase Regulator Interacting Protein (RP-GRIP), and cytokines or interleukins like e.g. IL-10, porphobilinogen deaminase (PBGD), a neurotrophic factor such as glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and alanine:glyoxylate aminotransferase (AGT).

Alternatively, or in addition as another gene product, the nucleotide sequence comprising the transgene as defined herein above may further comprise a nucleotide sequence encoding a polypeptide that serves as a marker protein to assess cell transformation and expression. Suitable marker proteins for this purpose are e.g. the fluorescent protein GFP, and the selectable marker genes HSV thymidine kinase (for selection on HAT medium), bacterial hygromycin B phosphotransferase (for selection on hygromycin B), Tn5 aminoglycoside phosphotransferase (for selection on G418), and dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) (for selection on methotrexate), CD20, the low affinity nerve growth factor gene. Sources for obtaining these marker genes and methods for their use are provided in Sambrook and Russel, supra. Furthermore, the nucleotide sequence comprising the transgene as defined herein above may comprise a further nucleotide sequence encoding a polypeptide that may serve as a fail-safe mechanism that allows to cure a subject from cells transduced with the recombinant parvoviral (rAAV) vector of the invention, if deemed necessary. Such a nucleotide sequence, often referred to as a suicide gene, encodes a protein that is capable of converting a prodrug into a toxic substance that is capable of killing the transgenic cells in which the protein is expressed. Suitable examples of such suicide genes include e.g. the E. coli cytosine deaminase gene or one of the thymidine kinase genes from Herpes Simplex Virus, Cytomegalovirus and Varicella-Zoster virus, in which case ganciclovir may be used as prodrug to kill the transgenic cells in the subject (see e.g. Clair et al., 1987, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 31: 844-849).

In another embodiment one of the gene products of interest can be an AAV protein. In particular, a Rep protein, such as Rep78 or Rep68, or a functional fragment thereof. A nucleotide sequence encoding a Rep78 and/or a Rep68, if present on the genome of a recombinant parvoviral (rAAV) vector of the invention and expressed in a mammalian cell transduced with the vector, allows for integration of the recombinant parvoviral (rAAV) vector into the genome of the transduced mammalian cell. Expression of Rep78 and/or Rep68 in an rAAV-transduced or infected mammalian cell can provide an advantage for certain uses of the recombinant parvoviral (rAAV) vector, by allowing long term or permanent expression of any other gene product of interest introduced in the cell by the vector.

In the recombinant parvoviral (rAAV) vectors of the invention the at least one nucleotide sequence(s) encoding a gene product of interest for expression in a mammalian cell, preferably is/are operably linked to at least one mammalian cell-compatible expression control sequence, e.g., a promoter. Many such promoters are known in the art (see Sambrook and Russel, 2001, supra). Constitutive promoters that are broadly expressed in many cell-types, such as the CMV promoter may be used. However, more preferred will be promoters that are inducible, tissue-specific, cell-type-specific, or cell cycle-specific. For example, for liver-specific expression a promoter may be selected from an al-anti-trypsin (AAT) promoter, a thyroid hormone-binding globulin promoter, an albumin promoter, a LPS (thyroxine-binding globlin) promoter, an HCR-ApoCII hybrid promoter, an HCR-hAAT hybrid promoter, an AAT promoter combined with the mouse albumin gene enhancer (Ealb) element and an apolipoprotein E promoter. Other examples include the E2F promoter for tumour-selective, and, in particular, neurological cell tumour-selective expression (Parr et al., 1997, Nat. Med. 3:1145-9) or the IL-2 promoter for use in mononuclear blood cells (Hagenbaugh et al., 1997, J Exp Med; 185: 2101-10).

AAV is able to infect a number of mammalian cells. See, e.g., Tratschin et al. (1985, Mol. Cell. Biol. 5:3251-3260) and Grimm et al. (1999, Hum. Gene Ther. 10:2445-2450). However, AAV transduction of human synovial fibroblasts is significantly more efficient than in similar murine cells, Jennings et al., Arthritis Res, 3:1 (2001), and the cellular tropicity of AAV differs among serotypes. See, e.g., Davidson et al. (2000, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 97:3428-3432), who discuss differences among AAV2, AAV4, and AAV5 with respect to mammalian CNS cell tropism and transduction efficiency. In a preferred embodiment, a host cell of the invention is any mammalian cell that may be infected by a parvoviral virion, for example, but not limited to, a muscle cell, a liver cell, a nerve cell, a glial cell and an epithelial cell. In a preferred embodiment a host cell of the invention is a human cell.

Preferably, in the construct, the nucleotide sequence encoding a parvoviral Rep protein and/or a parvoviral capsid protein is operably linked to expression control sequences for expression in an insect cell. These expression control sequences will at least include a promoter that is active in insect cells. Techniques known to one skilled in the art for expressing foreign genes in insect host cells can be used to practice the invention. Methodology for molecular engineering and expression of polypeptides in insect cells is described, for example, in Summers and Smith. 1986. A Manual of Methods for Baculovirus Vectors and Insect Culture Procedures, Texas Agricultural Experimental Station Bull. No. 7555, College Station, Tex.; Luckow. 1991. In Prokop et al., Cloning and Expression of Heterologous Genes in Insect Cells with Baculovirus Vectors' Recombinant DNA Technology and Applications, 97-152; King, L. A. and R. D. Possee, 1992, The baculovirus expression system, Chapman and Hall, United Kingdom; O'Reilly, D. R., L. K. Miller, V. A. Luckow, 1992, Baculovirus Expression Vectors: A Laboratory Manual, New York; W. H. Freeman and Richardson, C. D., 1995, Baculovirus Expression Protocols, Methods in Molecular Biology, volume 39; U.S. Pat. No. 4,745,051; US2003148506; and WO 03/074714. Suitable promoters for transcription of the nucleotide sequences comprised in the first and the second construct of the invention include e.g. the polyhedron (PolH), p10, p35, IE-1 or ΔIE-1 promoters and further promoters described in the above references.

The nucleic acid construct comprising at least the first and/or second expression cassettes, may further comprise an expression control sequence that comprises a nine nucleotide sequence of SEQ. ID NO: 9 or a nucleotide sequence substantially homologous to SEQ. ID NO: 9, upstream of the initiation codon of the nucleotide sequence encoding the parvoviral Rep protein and/or of the initiation codon of the nucleotide sequence encoding the parvoviral VP1 capsid protein. A sequence with substantial identity to the nucleotide sequence of SEQ. ID NO: 9 and that will help increase expression of the parvoviral Rep protein is e.g. a sequence which has at least 60%, 70%, 80% or 90% identity to the nine nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 9.

The insect cell may be any cell that is suitable for the production of heterologous proteins. Preferably the insect cell allows for replication of baculoviral vectors and can be maintained in culture. More preferably the insect cell also allows for replication of recombinant parvoviral vectors, including rAAV vectors. For example, the cell line used can be from Spodoptera frugiperda, Drosophila cell lines, or mosquito cell lines, e.g., Aedes albopictus derived cell lines. Preferred insect cells or cell lines are cells from the insect species which are susceptible to baculovirus infection, including e.g. S2 (CRL-1963, ATCC), Se301, SeIZD2109, SeUCR1, Sf9, Sf900+, Sf21, BTI-TN-5B1-4, MG-1, Tn368, HzAm1, Ha2302, Hz2E5, High Five (Invitrogen, CA, USA) and expresSF+® (U.S. Pat. No. 6,103,526; Protein Sciences Corp., CT, USA). A preferred insect cell according to the invention is an insect cell for production of recombinant parvoviral vectors.

The one or more nucleic acid constructs of the method of the invention may be stably integrated in the genome of the insect cell. One of ordinary skill in the art knows how to stably introduce a nucleotide sequence into the insect genome and how to identify a cell having such a nucleotide sequence in the genome. The incorporation into the genome may be aided by, for example, the use of a vector comprising nucleotide sequences highly homologous to regions of the insect genome. The use of specific sequences, such as transposons, is another way to introduce a nucleotide sequence into a genome.

Growing conditions for insect cells in culture, and production of heterologous products in insect cells in culture are well-known in the art and described e.g. in the above cited references on molecular engineering of insects cells (see also WO2007/046703).

In a preferred embodiment of the method of the invention, the recombinant parvoviral virion is recovered. Recovery preferably comprises the step of affinity-purification of the (virions comprising the) recombinant parvoviral (rAAV) vector using an anti-AAV antibody, preferably an immobilised antibody. The anti-AAV antibody preferably is an monoclonal antibody. A particularly suitable antibody is a single chain camelid antibody or a fragment thereof as e.g. obtainable from camels or llamas (see e.g. Muyldermans, 2001, Biotechnol. 74: 277-302). The antibody for affinity-purification of rAAV preferably is an antibody that specifically binds an epitope on a AAV capsid protein, whereby preferably the epitope is an epitope that is present on capsid protein of more than one AAV serotype. E.g. the antibody may be raised or selected on the basis of specific binding to AAV2 capsid but at the same time also it may also specifically bind to AAV1, AAV3 and AAV5 capsids.

In a second aspect, the invention relates to a nucleic acid construct comprising one or more expression cassettes of the invention as herein defined above. In a preferred embodiment, the nucleic acid construct of the invention comprises a first and a second expression cassette of the invention and optionally a nucleic acid sequence of (i). Preferably, the first promoter in the nucleic acid construct of the invention is a p10 promoter and the second promoter is a PolH promoter or a 4×Hsp27 EcRE+minimal Hsp70 promoter. More preferably, the first promoter is operably linked with an enhancer, preferably an HR1 enhancer. In another embodiment, the first promoter in the nucleic acid construct of the invention is a 4×Hsp27 EcRE+minimal Hsp70 promoter and the second promoter is a PolH promoter. In yet another embodiment, the first promoter in the nucleic acid construct of the invention is a PolH promoter and the second promoter is a p10, a deltaE1 or an E1 promoter. In yet another embodiment, the first promoter in the nucleic acid construct of the invention is a PolH promoter and the second promoter is a deltaE1 or an E1 promoter. In yet another embodiment, the first promoter in the nucleic acid construct of the invention is a p10 promoter and the second promoter is a deltaE1 or an E1 promoter. In yet another embodiment, the first promoter in the nucleic acid construct of the invention is a PolH promoter and the second promoter is a PolH promoter. In further embodiments, any other combination of the first promoter and the second promoter are part of the invention. The first promoter may be selected from the group consisting of a PolH promoter, p10 promoter, basic protein promoter, an inducible promoter or a deltaE1 promoter or a E1 promoter, or any other late or very late baculovirus gene promoter. The second promoter may be selected from the group consisting of a PolH promoter, p10 promoter, basic protein promoter, an inducible promoter or a deltaE1 promoter or a E1 promoter, or any other late or very late baculovirus gene promoter. More preferably, the first promoter is selected from the group consisting of a PolH promoter, p10 promoter or basic protein promoter and wherein the second promoter is a deltaE1 promoter or a E1 promoter, or any other early or late baculovirus gene promoter.

In a preferred embodiment the first expression cassette comprised in the nucleic acid construct of the invention, comprises an enhancer element as defined above.

In a third aspect, the invention relates to an insect cell as defined above.

In a fourth aspect, the invention relates to a kit comprising (a) a nucleic acid construct comprising the first and second expression cassette as defined above; and (b) a nucleic acid construct comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a multiple cloning site for a transgene that is flanked by at least one parvoviral inverted terminal repeat nucleotide sequence, which transgene is operably linked to a promoter capable of driving expression of the transgene in a host cell.

In a preferred embodiment, the nucleic acid construct (b) comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding a transgene that is flanked by at least one parvoviral inverted terminal repeat nucleotide sequence, which transgene is operably linked to a promoter capable of driving expression of the transgene in a host cell.

The kit may further comprise insect cells and a nucleic acid sequence encoding baculovirus helper functions for expression in the insect cell.

In a further aspect the invention relates to a batch of parvoviral virions produced in the above described methods of the invention. A “batch of parvoviral virions” is herein defined as all parvoviral virions that are produced in the same round of production, optionally per container of insect cells. In a preferred embodiment, the batch of parvoviral virions of the invention comprises a full virion:total virion ratio as described above and/or a full virion:empty ratio as described above.

In this document and in its claims, the verb “to comprise” and its conjugations is used in its non-limiting sense to mean that items following the word are included, but items not specifically mentioned are not excluded. In addition, reference to an element by the indefinite article “a” or “an” does not exclude the possibility that more than one of the element is present, unless the context clearly requires that there be one and only one of the elements. The indefinite article “a” or “an” thus usually means “at least one”.

The following Examples illustrate the invention:

EXAMPLES Example 1 1.1 Materials and Methods

1.1.1 Generation of Recombinant Baculovirus

The following constructs were generated:

1.1.1.1 Construction of pVD118 (New)

pVD118 (new) is a control vector comprising an expression cassette comprising the nucleotide sequence of Rep78 under the control of the p10 promoter and an expression cassette comprising the nucleotide sequence of Cap genes under the control of the polyhedron (PolH or pPH) promoter. pVD118 (new) was constructed as shown in FIG. 1. Before the final plasmid pVD118 (new) could be made the predecessors pFastBac Dual Rep78/ACG and pVD118 (lot#1) was constructed. In brief, plasmid REP-ACG/PSC (patent application WO2007148971; herein also referred to as pVD88) pVD88 was digested with SpeI*XbaI and 5′ overhangs were made blunt. The 2057 bp fragment was isolated from an agarose gel, purified and ligated into the with SmaI linearized pFastBac Dual (Invitrogen), resulting in pFastBac Dual Rep78/ACG. Thereafter, this plasmid was digested with BstZ17I and SnaBI and the 2537 bp p10_Rep78/ACG fragment was isolated and ligated into the BstZ17I linearized pVD84, generating pVD118 (lot#1). However, the orientation of the Rep78/ACG expression cassette was incorrect and therefore deleted by performing a digestion with NheI*BlpI. After blunting the 5′ overhangs the 12431 bp vector fragment was isolated and purified from gel. Subsequently, the 2057 bp purified fragment from REP-ACG/PSC was ligated into the vector and the transformation mix was transformed to chemically competent TOP10 cells (Invitrogen) and plated onto ampicilin containing plates. Restriction analysis with NaeI*SacI was performed on DNA isolated from miniprep cultures. Correct clones give fragments with a size of 2204 bp and 12292 bp.

1.1.1.2 Construction of pVD118 (New)+HR1

pVD118 (new)+HR1 is the same as pVD118, with the addition of an hr1 enhancer that is located in between the p10 and polyhedron promoter and was constructed as shown in FIG. 2. Briefly, a PCR performed on AcMNPV viral DNA (Protein Sciences Corporation, Meriden, USA) with primers HR1-F w 5′-gtatacgtatgacact atcgatgttgac-3′ (SEQ ID No: 10) and HR 1-Rv 5′-gtatacgatcgattattgctccaatactag-3′ (SEQ ID No:11) resulted in a product of 904 bp that is cloned to the pCRII-blunt-TOPO vector (Invitrogen). After digestion with BstZ17I the 898 bp fragment was isolated from gel, purified and ligated into the pVD118(new) vector that was cut open with BstZ17I and dephosphorylated. Control digestions of correct clones with SpeI*EcoNI resulted in fragments of 1269 bp and 14125 bp.

1.1.1.3 Construction of pVD84 (+p10 Rep) (=pVD165)

pVD165 is a control vector comprising an expression cassette comprising the nucleotide sequence of Rep78 wherein the start codon has been mutated into ACG under the control of the p10 promoter and an expression cassette comprising the nucleotide sequence of Cap genes under the control of the PolH promoter. The expression cassettes are in opposite direction in the plasmid. pVD165 was constructed as shown in FIG. 3. Briefly, a PCR performed on pVD118 (new) with primers polyA Fw 5′-agatct gtagtggctatggcagggc-3′ (SEQ ID No:12) and p10 Rv 5′-agatct cccggg acggacctttaattcaacccaac-3′ (SEQ ID No:13) resulted in a product of 2566 bp that was cloned to the pCRII-blunt-TOPO vector (Invitrogen). After digestion with BglII the 2541 bp fragment was isolated from gel, purified and ligated into the pVD84 vector that was cut open with BglII and dephosphorylated. Control digestions of correct clones with SpeI*XbaI resulted in fragments of 1269 bp and 11810 bp.

1.1.1.4 Construction of pVD165+HR1

pVD165+HR1 is the same as pVD165, with the addition of an hr1 enhancer downtream of the p10 promoter and was constructed as shown in FIG. 4. Briefly, a PCR performed on AcMNPV viral DNA with primers HR1-Fw 5′-gtatacgtatgacact atcgatgttgac-3′ (SEQ ID No:10) and HR1-Rv 5′-gtatacgatcgattattgctccaatactag-3′ (SEQ ID No:11) resulted in a product of 904 bp that was cloned to the pCRII-blunt-TOPO vector (Invitrogen). After digestion with BstZ17I the 898 bp fragment was isolated from gel, purified and ligated into the pVD165 vector that was cut open with SmaI and dephosphorylated. Control digestions of correct clones with ClaI resulted in fragments of 875 bp, 1184 bp, 4160 bp and 9180 bp.

1.1.1.5 Construction of pVD165 with Inducible Promoter Upstream of CAP (pVD165+4×EcRE CAP)

pVD165+4×EcRE CAP is similar to pVD165, but comprises an inducible promoter instead of the polyhedron (pPH) promoter. pVD165+4×EcRE CAP was constructed as shown in FIG. 5. Briefly, the inducible promoter, which comprises 4 consecutive EcRE, a minimal hsp70 promoter (Poels et al. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2004, 34(5):451-458) and part of the CAP coding sequence, was synthesized and ligated into pCRII-blunt-TOPO (Invitrogen). After digestion with BstZ17I and EcoNI the 375 bp fragment was isolated from gel, purified and ligated into the pVD165 vector that was cut open with BstZ127I and EcoNI. Control digestions of correct clones with PmeI*EcoRV resulted in fragments of 2554 bp and 12116 bp.

1.1.1.6 Construction of pVD165 with Inducible Promoter Upstream of Rep (pVD165+4*EcRE Rep78-52)

pVD165+4*EcRE Rep78 is similar to pVD165, but comprises an inducible promoter instead of the p10 promoter. pVD165+4*EcRE Rep78 was constructed as shown in FIG. 6. Briefly, the inducible promoter which consist out of 4 consecutive EcRE and a minimal hsp70 promoter was synthesized and ligated into pCRII-blunt-TOPO (Invitrogen). After digestion with BstZ17I and SpeI the 290 bp fragment was isolated from gel, purified and ligated into the pVD165 vector that was cut open with SmaI and SpeI. Control digestions of correct clones with SpeI*BglII resulted in fragments of 298 bp, 2376 bp and 11954 bp.

1.1.1.7 Construction of pVD190 Construct (deltaIE1 Cap+pPolh Rep)

DeltaIE1 Cap+pPolh Rep is similar to pVD165, but comprises a delta IE1 promoter instead of the pPH promoter and a pPolH promoter instead of the p10 promoter. DeltaIE1 Cap+pPolh Rep was constructed as shown in FIGS. 7 and 8. Hereto, a precursor vector was constructed in the following way. A PCR performed on pFBDSLR (Urabe et al. Human gene therapy 2002; 13(16):1935-1943) with primers BstZ17I-deltaIE1 Fw: 5′-ggtcc gtatacgacgataacgccgttggtggcg-3′ (SEQ ID No:14) and AflII-delta IE1 Rv: 5′-cgacttaagacggcgaattctgc agatggc-3′ (SEQ ID No:15) resulted in a product of 181 bp that was cloned to the pCRII-blunt-TOPO vector (Invitrogen). After digestion with BstZ17I*AflII the 165 bp fragment was isolated from gel, purified and ligated into the pVD165+4×EcRE CAP vector that was cut open with BstZ17I and AflII. The resulting plasmid is pVD165+deltaIE1 CAP and control digestion with BstZ17I*AflII should result in 165 bp and 14374 bp fragments. Subsequently, the polyhedrin promoter was cloned in front of the Rep expression cassette in pVD165+deltaIE1 CAP. Hereto, a PCR with primers SmaI-pPolh Fw: 5′-tctcccgggagatcatggaga taattaaaatgataac-3′ (SEQ ID No:16) and SpeI-pPolh Rv: 5′-gttactagtgagctcgtcgac-3′ (SEQ ID No:17) was performed on pVD88. This generated a PCR product of 198 bp that was cloned to the pCRII-blunt-TOPO vector (Invitrogen). After digestion with SpeI*SmaI the 188 bp fragment was isolated from gel, purified and ligated into the pVD165+deltaIE1_Cap vector that was cut open with SpeI and SmaI. Finally, this resulted in the pVD165+deltaIE1 CAP construct.

1.1.1.8 Construction of p10-Cap-pPolh-Rep Construct

The p10_Cap+pPolh_Rep construct is similar to the delta-IE1-Cap-pPolh-Rep construct, but comprises a p10 promoter instead of the delta-IE1 promoter in front of the Cap expression cassette and was constructed as shown in FIG. 9. A PCR performed on pFastBac Dual with primers BstZ17I-p10 Fw: 5′-agtatacggacctttaattcaac-3′ (SEQ ID No:18) and AflII-p10 Rv: 5′-cgacttaagagcgggccgctttcgaatc-3′ (SEQ ID No:19) resulted in a product of 171 bp that was cloned to the pCRII-blunt-TOPO vector (Invitrogen). After digestion with BstZ17I*AflII the 160 bp fragment was isolated from gel, purified and ligated into the delta-IE1-Cap-pPolh-Rep construct that was cut open with BstZ17I and AflII.

1.1.1.9 Construction of pVD194 (Rep78/CTG (delta ATGs))

A rep plasmid with a CTG start codon without any internal ATG sites was first constructed by synthesizing the necessary gene according to the sequence set out in SEQ ID NO: 31. The rep gene was then deleted from plasmid pVD88 using restriction enzymes RsrII and XbaI. The synthesized gene was then ligated in plasmid pVD88 using restriction sites RsrII and XbaI to give pVD195. pVD195 was then digested with BglII., resulting in 9297 bp and 2231 bp fragments. The 5′ overhangs were then filled with Klenow and then digested with SexAI. This results in 9297 bp, 1372 and 859 bp fragments. The 859 bp fragment was then isolated. The necessary vector was generated by digesting pVD165 with SpeI to give a 14501 bp linear fragment. The 5′ overhangs were filled with Klenow and then digested with SexAI to yield 13600 bp and 901 bp fragments. The 13600 bp fragment was isolated. The 859 bp BglII(Klenow)*SexAI fragment was then ligated into pVD165 (SpeI(Klenow)*SexAI) to yield pVD194 (see FIG. 10). A control digestion with SexAI*XmaI should result in fragments of 13435 bp and 1029 bp

1.1.1.10 Construction of pVD84

To convert the startsite of the baculovirus expression vector pFBAAV1VPm11 (Urabe et al., 2002, Hum. Gene Ther. 13: 1935-1943) from ACG to GTG a PCR was performed using the following primers:

AMT  Primer Primer plasmid# AMTplasmid# startsite forward reverse (Bac-toBac) (PSC) GTG 169 158 pVD63 pVD84 The forward primer sequence contains a BamHI site (AMT primer #169; SEQ ID NO: 29) 5′-TTAGGATCCTGTTAAG GTG GCTGCCGACGG-3′ The reverse primer sequence contains a StuI site (AMT primer #158; SEQ ID NO: 30) 5′-GTCGTAGGCCTTGTCGTGCTCGAGGGCCGC-3′

The PCR using primers #169 and #158 was performed and the PCR product (250 bp) was purified using the PCR Purification Kit (Qiagen Lot#11879372) and cut with restriction enzymes BamHI and StuI. The baculovirus expression vector was also digested with BamHI and StuI. Following dephosphorylation of the vector with SAP (Promega Lot#17501504), both insert (Cap with GTG startsite) and vector were purified on gel. After ligation of vector and insert, they were transformed into chemically competent DH5α cells (Invitrogen Lot#1241753) and streaked onto LB plates containing ampicillin. The DNA of pVD63 (Cap/GTG start site) was purified and examined for identity using sequence analysis by BaseClear and restriction.

To clone the Cap gene with the GTG startsite in the baculovirus expression vector pPSC10 (Protein Sciences) it was cut out of pVD63 with SmaI and AvrII and ligated into the dephosphorylated expression vector which was cut open with EcoRV and XbaI. Subsequently, the ligation mixture was transformed into chemically competent DH10β cells (invitrogen lot#1268527) and streaked onto LB-ampicillin plates. After miniprep DNA isolation using the QIAprep Spin miniprep kit (Qiagen lot #12180218) one miniprep (clone #13) was selected by restriction analysis with SphI. With this clone DNA (pVD84) was purified with the SNAP midiprep kit (Invitrogen solution Lot#1256921 and column Lot#1259367). The identity of pVD84 was checked by sequence analysis around the startcodon performed by BaseClear and by restriction analysis with BamHI and SphI (SEQ ID NO:28).

1.1.1.11 Recombinant Baculovirus Production

Recombinant Bac.VD118(new), Bac.VD118(new)+HR1, Bac.VD165, Bac.VD165+HR1, Bac.VD165+4×EcRE CAP, Bac.VD165+4*EcRE Rep78, Bac.VD190 and Bac.VD194 (p0) were generated with the Protein sciences system (Protein Sciences Corporation, Meriden, USA). Recombinant baculovirus was amplified by diluting them 1:100 into 2×10⁶ SF⁺ cells per ml. Three days after infection the cells were spun down and the supernatant containing the virus recovered. Amplifying of next passages was performed in same manner.

1.1.2 rAAV Production

rAAV batches were produced according to Urabe et al., 2002 (supra), but with the exception that two recombinant baculoviruses were used instead of three. One baculovirus harboured an expression construct under the control of the CMV promoter and is flanked by AAV ITRs. The other baculovirus is the Rep-Cap baculovirus that harboured two expression cassettes, one for the AAV replication gene and one for the for the AAV capsid. Expression of the replication or capsid gene under control of the inducible promoter was regulated by addition of 0.001-1 uM Ponasterone A to the culture medium. The different rAAV1 production experiments were performed with baculovirus stocks Bac.VD43 p5 containing the LPL transgene under control of the CMV promoter and different passages (p3, p4 or p5) of the Rep/Cap baculoviruses. In each experiment the standard rAAV1 production (Bac.VD88:Bac.VD84:Bac.VD43 with ratio 5:1:1) was taken along as a control.

1.1.3 Full/Total AAV Particle Determination

To determine the ratio of full versus total capsids, the amount of genome copies (gc) is divided by the amount of total AAV particles. The amount of gc/ml was measured by Q-PCR assay and the amount of total AAV particles was determined with an enzyme immunoassay of Progen (see below). For the Q-PCR reaction SYBR Green PCR Master Mix (Applied Biosystems, #4309155) was used according to the instructions of the producer (25 μl total volume; PCR-program: 10 min 95° C., 40 cycles of 15 sec 95° C. and 1 min 60° C.) using one of the following primer sets:

pr59 AATGGGCGGTAGGCGTGTA    CMV SEQ ID NO: 26 pr60 AGGCGATCTGACGGTTCACTAA CMV SEQ ID NO: 27 The ratio is compared to the ratio obtained under standard production conditions, using a 5:1:1 volume ratio of Bac.Rep, Bac.Cap and Bac.ITR. 1.1.4 Western Blot Analysis

Three days after rAAV production cells were lysed by adding 0.1V 10×TRIS lysis buffer (1.5M NaCl, 0.5M TRIS, 0.01M MgCl, 1% TRITON X-100, pH8.5, filter sterilised) and incubated on ice for 30 minutes. Free DNA and RNA was degraded by incubation with benzonase at 37° C. for 15 minutes. Cell lysate was centrifuged (1,900×g; 15 min; 4° C.). NuPAGE LDS sample buffer (4×, Invitrogen) was added to a sample of the supernatant and was loaded onto a 4-12% Bis-Tris gel (120V). Proteins were blotted onto a PVDF membrane (BioRad) for 30 minutes, 10V (Semidry blotting). Western immunochemistry was performed by blocking the membrane with Superblock-PBS blocking buffer (PIERCE) and subsequent incubation with mouse anti-Rep (303.9, Progen, Germany; dilution 1:50) and rabbit anti-mouse—HRP (DAKO, dilution 1:500). The Rep-proteins were visualized by chemoluminescent staining with lumi-light plus Western-blotting substrate (Roche).

1.1.5 Total rAAV1 Particle ELISA

The total amount of rAAV1 particles (tp) made in each production was determined with the AAV1 Titration ELISA kit (Progen, Heidelberg, Germany) and performed according to the protocol supplied by the manufacturer, but with the exception that all samples and controls were pre-diluted in crude lysate bulk (CLB). Briefly, the CLB was made by harvesting of expressSF+ cells after three days by adding 10× lysis buffer and incubation for 1 h at 28° C. After treatment with benzonase for 1 h at 37° C., the lysate was centrifuged at 1900 g and supernatant was stored at 4° C. To determine the total rAAV1 particles in the crude lysate of each production the samples were 50-fold pre-diluted in CLB, this is the start dilution. Thereafter extra dilutions of 250, 1250 and 6250-fold were made in the CLB. The standard line was also diluted in the CLB. Samples from production with Bac.VD190 were only a 50 and 100-fold diluted, because of the low expression levels of the capsid proteins.

1.1.6 Total Particle Analysis Using HPLC

Unknown AAV-1 stocks are injected into the HPLC-system, resulting in a peak in the chromatogram. This peak can be integrated by Chemstation-software and represents the amount of total particles injected. A concentrated AAV-1 stock was titrated for its amount of total particles per millilitre by Electron Microscopy, and set into the method. Using this standard as a calibrator, the amount of total particles of the unknown can be calculated. In addition, when injecting a particular amount of genomic copies (which approximately represents the amount of full-particles) within the range of the standard, the ratio full- and empty particles can be estimated.

1.2 Results Full:Empty AAV Particle Ratio Improves Upon Use of Two Baculovirus System, in Particular with High Rep Protein Expression and Moderate Cap Protein Expression

Three constructs were investigated in detail, pVD165, pVD190 and pVD194. To determine the total/full ratio for rAAV1 particles produced with Bac.VD165 the total particle concentration in the crude lysates was determined in two independent experiments. The results of these ELISA's and the corresponding total/full ratios are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Total/full ratio of rAAV1 produced with the baculovirus stock Bac.VD165. The total particle concentration was determined with the total AAV1 particle ELISA. The full particle concentration was determined by Q-PCR. Total/full ratios can only be compared to the control produced in the same experiment. Total particle Full particle Bac.VD165:Bac. concentration concentration Total/full VD43 (tp/ml) (gc/ml) ratio (tp/gc) #1 control 7.07E+12 2.05E+10 345 1:1 4.91E+11 2.24E+09 219 5:1  8.3E+11  5.0E+09 166 #2 control 3.19E+13 1.99E+10 1603 1:1 6.32E+11 6.33E+08 998 5:1 1.30E+12 1.10E+09 1182

The total/full ratio for the 1:1 productions is in both experiments 1.6 times improved as compared to the control. For the 5:1 production the total/full ratio is 2.1 and 1.4 times better as compared to the control. In conclusion, total/full ratio is improved for the rAAV1 particles produced with Bac.VD165.

In Bac.VD190, the Cap expression cassette is under control of the weak ΔIE1 promoter. This may result in a lower capsid expression than in the productions performed with the other Rep/Cap baculoviruses or in the control situation, because in all those conditions the Cap expression is induced by the strong polyhedrin promoter. To test this hypothesis from two different experiments performed with Bac.VD190 the total particle concentration was determined. Results are shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Total/full ratio of rAAV1 produced with the baculovirus stock Bac.VD190. The total particle concentration was determined with the total AAV1 particle ELISA. The full particle concentration was determined by Q-PCR. Total/full ratios can only be compared to the control produced in the same experiment Total particle Full particle Bac.VD190:Bac. concentration concentration Total/full VD43 (tp/ml) (gc/ml) ratio (tp/gc) #1 control 3.19E+13 1.99E+10 1603 1:1  8.6E+10 5.97E+09 14 5:1 3.62E+11  1.8E+09 201 #2 control 6.11E+12 4.03E+10 152 1:1 3.75E+11 1.74E+09 216 5:1 3.44E+11 3.12E+09 110

Results from production #1 (Table 2) show that the total/full ratios obtained by the 1:1 and 5:1 productions were 114 and 8 times improved as compared to the control, respectively. In production #2, the total/full ratio is 1.4 times lower or 1.4 times higher for the 1:1 or 5:1 production. In conclusion, total/full ratio appears to also be improved for the rAAV1 particles produced with Bac.VD190 (as was observed for Bac.VD165).

For Bac.VD194, Western blot analysis was carried out to determine the Rep and Cap expression. Accordingly, three days after cells were infected with 2 different baculovirus ratios (i.e. 1:1 and 9:1, with 5:1:1 for the three component control) cell lysates were harvested and subjected to Western blot analysis. As shown in FIG. 11A, the Cap expression is low in the production with the 1:1 baculovirus ratio, but the production with the 9:1 ratio is comparable to the three component control. However, for the 1:1 and 9:1 ratio productions, Rep expression is dramatically reduced as compared to the three component control. FIG. 11B, however, shows that the production of virus was greater in the productions with Bac.VD194. The fact that the production is higher, yet the Cap expression is lower indicates a more favourable total:full ratio. Again, the conclusion is that the two component system with equimolar amounts of Rep and Cap, in particular with high Rep and moderate Cap expression, leads to a lower total:full ratio (i.e. a greater percentage of filled particles).

Example 2 Materials and Methods

Three shaker flasks (all cultivated at 28° C. prior to infection) were inoculated with inoculum P5; 4 mL Bac.VD43, 4 mL Bac.VD84 and 20 mL Bac.VD88 Shakers were incubated during the 72 hour viral production at three different temperatures (26, 28 and 30° C.).

The lysis treatment of all shaker flasks was carried out within 1 shaker incubator using 0.9% (v/v) Triton X-100. After lysis buffer addition, shakers were incubated for 30 minutes at setpoint 28° C., benzonase was added (16 μL per 400 mL) and shakers were incubated for 1 hour at setpoint 37° C. After benzonase treatment, all shaker flasks were placed for viral clearance overnight at 29° C., followed by storage at 4° C. for maximal 3 days.

Out of each shaker incubator, 200 ml of crude lysed bulk was processed on a 1 mL affinity column using a flow rate of 1 mL/min. After washing, the product was eluted using PBS, pH 3.5.

Results

The in-process cell count of the shaker flasks used for the temperature study are show in Table 1. An increase of temperature correlates with a decrease of total cell concentration and viability at the time of harvest. The viability obtained at 28° C. was comparable to the results obtained with the Wave bioreactor system.

TABLE 1 In process cell counts shaker productions Prior to infection Prior to lysis buffer addition Total cell conc. Viability Total cell conc. Viability Shaker flask (lot nr) (#/mL) (%) (#/mL) (%) Shaker flask infection 1.89 × 10⁶ 99.5 2.74 × 10⁶ 85.7 temperature 26° C. (Lot nr 0078) Shaker flask infection 1.89 × 10⁶ 99.5 2.51 × 10⁶ 74.9 temperature 28° C. (Lot nr 0078) Shaker flask infection 1.89 × 10⁶ 99.5 2.42 × 10⁶ 61.0 temperature 30° C. (Lot nr 0078) The test results of the crude lysed bulks and eluates of the shaker flasks are shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Total:full ratio of rAAV particles produced at different temperatures. Total particles Q-PCR Q-PCR Ratio Shaker flask (tp/mL) CLB Eluate total:full (lot nr) HPLC method (gc/mL) (gc/mL) (tp/gc) Shaker flask 6.14 × 10¹² 1.28 × 10¹⁰ 5.52 × 10¹⁰ 111 26° C. (Lot nr 0078) Shaker flask 6.58 × 10¹² 2.00 × 10¹⁰ 1.43 × 10¹¹ 46 28° C. (Lot nr 0078) Shaker flask 7.24 × 10¹² 3.94 × 10¹⁰ 1.73 × 10¹¹ 42 30° C. (Lot nr 0078)

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Increasing the temperature during rAAV production in SF⁺ cells, slightly increases the total amount of rAAV particles that are produced, but increases the amount of full particles that are produced more, leading to an decreased total:full ratio. 

The invention claimed is:
 1. A method for the production of a recombinant parvoviral virion, which comprises culturing an insect cell comprising one or more nucleic acid constructs which comprise: (a) a nucleotide sequence comprising a transgene that is flanked by at least one parvoviral inverted terminal repeat (ITR) nucleotide sequence; (b) a first expression cassette comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding at least one of parvoviral Rep proteins Rep78 and Rep68, which nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a first promoter that is capable of driving expression of the at least one of Rep78 and Rep68 proteins in the insect cell; and (c) a second expression cassette comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a parvoviral capsid protein which is operably linked to a second promoter that is capable of driving expression of the capsid protein in the insect cell; under conditions conducive to the expression of the Rep protein and the capsid protein; wherein (i) the first and second expression cassettes are present on a single nucleic acid construct and are present in equimolar amounts in the insect cell, (ii) the ratio of the Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein expression to the capsid protein expression is regulated by one or more of the following: (A) the first promoter is stronger than the second promoter; (B) the presence of more and/or stronger enhancer elements in the first expression cassette as compared to the second expression cassette; (C) the nucleotide sequence encoding the Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein has a higher codon adaptation index as compared to the nucleotide sequence encoding the capsid protein; (D) temperature optimization of the Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein; and/or (E) a variant Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein with an alteration in the amino acid sequence as compared to the sequence of corresponding wild-type Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein, wherein the sequence alteration results in increased Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein function assessed as increased adeno-associated virus (AAV) production in the insect cell,  resulting in expression of the Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein that is greater than expression of the capsid protein.
 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the nucleotide sequence of (c) comprises an open reading frame (ORF) comprising nucleotide sequences encoding the VP1, VP2 and VP3 capsid proteins.
 3. The method according to claim 1, wherein the nucleotide sequence of (b)) comprises only one ORF comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the Rep78 or the Rep 68 protein.
 4. The method according to claim 2, wherein (i) at least one ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding VP1, VP2 or VP3 capsid proteins does not comprise an artificial intron, or (ii) at least one ORF comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding said at least one of Rep78 or Rep68 proteins does not comprise an artificial intron.
 5. The method according to claim 4, wherein: (A) no ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding the VP1, VP2 and VP3 capsid proteins comprises an artificial intron; and/or (B) no ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding said at least one of the Rep78 and Rep68 proteins comprises an artificial intron.
 6. The method according to claim 1, wherein the first promoter or the second promoter is selected from the group consisting of (a) a PolH promoter, (b) p10 promoter, (c) a basic promoter, (d) an inducible promoter, (e) an E1 promoter, and (f) a deltaE1 promoter.
 7. The method according to claim 6, wherein the first promoter is: (a) a PolH promoter, (b) p10 promoter or (c) basic promoter, and the second promoter is: (d) a deltaE1 promoter or (e) an E1 promoter.
 8. The method according to claim 1, wherein the first expression cassette comprises at least one baculovirus enhancer element and/or at least one ecdysone responsive element.
 9. The method according to claim 8, wherein the enhancer element is selected from the group consisting of hr1, hr2, hr3, hr4 and hr5.
 10. The method according to claim 1, wherein the parvoviral ITR sequence, the parvoviral Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein and/or the parvoviral capsid protein are from an AAV.
 11. A nucleic acid construct comprising a first and a second expression cassette as defined in claim 1, wherein: (a) the first promoter is a p10 promoter and the second promoter is a 4×Hsp27 EcRE+minimal Hsp70 promoter; (b) the first promoter is a PolH promoter and the second promoter is a deltaE1 or an E1 promoter; or (c) the first promoter is a p10 promoter and the second promoter is a deltaE1 or an E1 promoter; wherein the first expression cassette optionally comprises an enhancer element.
 12. The method according to claim 1, further comprising a step of recovering the recombinant parvoviral virion from the culture.
 13. A kit comprising (a) a first nucleic acid construct comprising: (i) a first expression cassette comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding at least one of a parvoviral Rep protein Rep78 and Rep68 which is operably linked to a first promoter that is capable of driving expression of the Rep78 or Rep68 protein in a host insect cell; and (ii) a second expression cassette comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a parvoviral capsid protein which is operably linked to a second promoter that is capable of driving expression of the capsid protein in the insect cell; wherein (A) the first promoter is or stronger than the second promoter; (B) the first expression cassette comprises more and/or stronger enhancer elements as compared to the second expression cassette; (C) the nucleotide sequence encoding the Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein has a higher codon adaptation index as compared to the nucleotide sequence encoding the capsid protein; (D) the Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein is temperature optimized; and/or (E) the Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein is a variant with an alteration in the amino acid sequence as compared to the sequence of corresponding wild-type Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein, wherein the sequence alteration results in increased Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein function assessed as increased adeno-associated virus (AAV) production in the insect cell, such that, when expressed in the insect cell, expression of the Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein is greater than expression of the capsid protein, and (b) a second nucleic acid construct comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a multiple cloning site for a transgene, which site is flanked by at least one parvoviral ITR nucleotide sequence, and which transgene is operably linked to a promoter capable of driving its expression in a host insect cell.
 14. An insect cell comprising one or more nucleic acid constructs, which comprise: (a) a nucleotide sequence comprising a transgene that is flanked by at least one parvoviral ITR nucleotide sequence; (b) a first expression cassette comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding at least one of parvoviral Rep proteins Rep78 and Rep68, which nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a first promoter that is capable of driving expression of the at least one of Rep78 and Rep68 proteins in the insect cell; and (c) a second expression cassette comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a parvoviral capsid protein which is operably linked to a second promoter that is capable of driving expression of the capsid protein in the insect cell; wherein (i) the first and second expression cassettes are present on a single nucleic acid construct and are present in equimolar amounts in the cell; and (ii) the ratio of Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein expression to capsid protein expression in said cell is regulated by one or more of the following: (A) the first promoter is or stronger than the second promoter; (B) the presence of more and/or stronger enhancer elements in the first expression cassette as compared to the second expression cassette; (C) the nucleotide sequence encoding the Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein has a higher codon adaptation index as compared to the nucleotide sequence encoding the capsid protein; (D) temperature optimization of the Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein; and/or (E) a variant Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein with an alteration in the amino acid sequence as compared to the sequence of corresponding wild-type Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein, wherein the sequence alteration results in increased Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein function assessed as increased AAV production in the cell such that expression of Rep78 and/or Rep68 protein is greater than expression of the capsid protein. 